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The history of computing extends beyond the history of computing hardware and modern computing technology including earlier methods that relied on pen and paper or chalk and slate, with or without the aid of tables.

Digital computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers.

Eventually, the concept of numbers became concrete and familiar enough for counting to arise, at times with sing-song mnemonics to teach sequences to others. Advances in the numeral system and mathematical notation eventually led to the discovery of mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, squaring, square root, and so forth. By the High Middle Ages, the positional Hindu–Arabic numeral system had reached Europe, which allowed for the systematic computation of numbers. During this period, the representation of a calculation on paper allowed the calculation of mathematical expressions, and the tabulation of mathematical functions such as the square root and the common logarithm (for use in multiplication and division), and the trigonometric functions. By the time of Isaac Newton's research, paper or vellum was an important computing resource, and even in our present time, researchers like Enrico Fermi would cover random scraps of paper with calculation, to satisfy their curiosity about an equation.

His work, translated into Latin as Algoritmi de numero Indorum, provided the mathematical foundation for sequential step-by-step procedures, which are the fundamental basis of all modern computing and programming logic. The apex of this early era of mechanical computing can be seen in the Difference Engine and its successor the Analytical Engine both by Charles Babbage. Following Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, Percy Ludgate in 1909 published the 2nd of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history.

The first recorded idea of using digital electronics for computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by C. This experimental model is binary, executed addition and subtraction in octal binary code and is the first binary digital electronic computing device. The Z3 computer, built by German inventor Konrad Zuse in 1941, was the first programmable, fully automatic computing machine, but it was not electronic. During World War II, ballistics computing was done by women, who were hired as "computers." The term computer remained one that referred to mostly women (now seen as "operator") until 1945, after which it took on the modern definition of machinery it presently holds. It was Turing-complete, digital, and capable of being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computing problems.

With a clock speed of 80 MHz or 136 megaFLOPS, Cray developed a name for himself in the computing world.

In the modern era before the 1960s, computing was widely seen as "women's work" since it was associated with the operation of tabulating machines and other mechanical office work. Some notable examples of women in the history of computing are:

Charles Babbage Institute - research center for history of computing at University of Minnesota

"From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush".

SIG on Computers, Information and Society of the Society for the History of Technology

A Chronology of Digital Computing Machines (to 1952) by Mark Brader Stephen White's excellent computer history site (the above article is a modified version of his work, used with permission) Soviet Digital Electronics Museum - a big collection of Soviet calculators, computers, computer mice and other devices Logarithmic timeline of greatest breakthroughs since start of computing era in 1623 by Jürgen Schmidhuber, from "The New AI: General & Sound & Relevant for Physics, In B.

Computer Histories - An introductory course on the history of computing

Richmond Arabian History of Computing Group Linking the Gulf and Europe History of Computing Collection; University of Manchester Library

Quick Facts

• History of Computing Collection; University of Manchester Library
• Computer Histories - An introductory course on the history of computing
• Richmond Arabian History of Computing Group Linking the Gulf and Europe
• Charles Babbage Institute - research center for history of computing at University of Minnesota
• Digital computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers.

Source material: Wikipedia - "History of computing". Adapted and summarized for DiscoverScroll. Original contributors are credited through the linked Wikipedia article. Read original on Wikipedia. CC BY-SA 4.0. Changes were made from the original.